Conditions and diseases — Health information

Adenoids in children

Adenoids are normal lymphatic tissue high in the nasopharynx. Enlarged or inflamed adenoids can contribute to mouth breathing, nasal-sounding speech, snoring and problems with the middle ear.

Acne vulgaris

Acne is an inflammatory condition of hair follicles and sebaceous glands. It causes comedones, papules, pustules and sometimes deep nodules or scarring.

Allergic contact dermatitis is an immune-mediated skin reaction that develops after contact with a substance to which a person has become sensitised. It must be distinguished from common irritant dermatitis.

Allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis is inflammation of the nasal lining related to exposure to allergens. It may cause recurrent sneezing, nasal itching, clear runny discharge and congestion, either seasonally or throughout the year.

Allergy to insect bites and stings

Pain, redness and small swelling after a bite or sting are common local responses and do not by themselves prove allergy. Some people have large local reactions; systemic reactions after bee or wasp stings can be more serious.

Anal fissure

An anal fissure is a small tear in the lining of the anal canal. It can cause sharp pain during bowel movements and spots of bright-red blood on paper. Other causes of pain and bleeding still need to be considered.

Anal fistula

An anal fistula is an abnormal tract connecting the anal canal or rectum with skin near the anus. It often develops after an abscess and may produce recurring discharge or inflammation.

Angioedema

Angioedema is sudden swelling of deeper skin or mucous tissues. Swelling of the tongue or throat and any difficulty breathing or swallowing can become life-threatening and must be treated as an emergency.

Anaemia

Anaemia means that the haemoglobin concentration is below an appropriate reference level. It can reduce oxygen delivery to tissues, but iron deficiency is only one of several possible causes and must not be assumed from haemoglobin alone.

Heart arrhythmias

An arrhythmia is a change in the rate or regularity of the heartbeat. Clinical assessment is needed to determine its type and significance.

High blood pressure (hypertension)

Hypertension means persistently high blood pressure and often causes no noticeable symptoms. A diagnosis requires properly performed, repeated measurements.

High blood pressure in children

Persistent high blood pressure in children requires clinical assessment, but a single elevated reading during anxiety is not enough to establish hypertension. Paediatric reference values differ from those used for adults.

Astigmatism

Astigmatism is a refractive error often related to the shape of the cornea or lens. It can distort fine details at both near and far distances rather than causing distance blur alone.

Epidermal cyst (often called atheroma)

The everyday term atheroma often refers to an epidermal cyst, a rounded skin or subcutaneous lump. It commonly grows slowly and may be painless, but examination is needed to identify what it is.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a gradual buildup of plaque in arterial walls. It may cause no noticeable symptoms for years while increasing the risk of cardiovascular complications.

Atopic dermatitis in children

Atopic dermatitis can start in infancy and cause dry, itchy skin and sleep disruption; care should be adjusted to a child’s age.

Bronchial asthma

Bronchial asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway condition with variable symptoms and narrowing of the bronchi. Cough or wheezing alone does not establish the diagnosis.

Asthma in children

Asthma is a chronic airway condition in children characterised by variable respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation.

Bronchiolitis in children

Bronchiolitis is usually a viral infection of the small airways in infants and young children.

Vasomotor (non-allergic) rhinitis

Vasomotor rhinitis is a form of non-allergic rhinitis in which the nasal lining reacts to triggers such as cold air, strong smells, temperature changes or hot food. It can resemble allergy, but the mechanism is not necessarily allergic.

Deviated nasal septum

The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into left and right sides. Its deviation may be an anatomical variation or follow injury, sometimes making breathing through the nose more difficult.

Peptic ulcer disease

Peptic ulcers are defects in the lining of the stomach or duodenum. They can cause pain or remain silent until a complication such as bleeding occurs.

Ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the lining of the large bowel. Bleeding and frequent bowel movements should not simply be attributed to haemorrhoids.

Congenital kidney and urinary tract differences in children

Some congenital kidney and urinary tract differences are present from birth and may be found during prenatal or childhood ultrasound. Their significance varies widely: a structural finding does not automatically mean impaired kidney function or that surgery is required.

Thyroid nodules

Thyroid nodules are often discovered incidentally. Most are benign, but follow-up depends on ultrasound features and clinical factors.

Vulvovaginitis in girls

Vulvovaginitis in girls describes irritation or inflammation around the vulva and vaginal opening. Itching, redness and stinging are common before puberty and are not automatically signs of bacterial infection.

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

GERD means reflux that causes recurrent troubling symptoms or complications. Heartburn and acid regurgitation are common, but the full picture guides diagnosis.

Haemorrhoids

Haemorrhoidal disease involves enlarged vascular cushions inside the anal canal or externally. It can cause bleeding, itching, a feeling of lumps or discomfort, but similar symptoms are not always due to haemorrhoids.

Hyperopia (farsightedness)

Hyperopia is a refractive error in which light focuses behind the retina when the eye is not accommodating. Near work may become tiring, though some people compensate and see clearly.

Hyperthyroidism

Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces excessive hormones. The underlying cause guides treatment.

Hypertrophic and keloid postoperative scars

Scar tissue is a normal part of wound healing, but a scar may become raised, firm, red or uncomfortable. A hypertrophic scar usually stays within the original wound, while a keloid can extend beyond it. The distinction influences the choice of treatment and recurrence risk.

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid makes too little hormone; symptoms vary and are often nonspecific.

Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group of conditions that can damage the optic nerve and narrow the field of vision. Early open-angle disease may produce no noticeable symptoms, making examinations essential.

Glomerulonephritis in children

Glomerulonephritis describes inflammation affecting the kidney filters. Children may show blood or protein in urine, swelling or raised blood pressure, but not all signs are present in every case. Evaluation is needed to identify the type and severity.

Acute intestinal infection

Acute intestinal infections can cause diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, nausea and vomiting. Viruses, bacteria and other microorganisms may be involved, so treatment is not identical for everyone.

Acute appendicitis

Acute appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix and may become dangerous without prompt assessment. Suspected appendicitis should be evaluated urgently in a hospital, not deferred to a routine consultation.

Acute bronchitis in children

Acute bronchitis in children often causes coughing and is commonly viral; the best approach depends on clinical assessment.

Acute tonsillitis in children

Acute tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. Children may develop painful swallowing, fever, swollen neck nodes and a coating on the tonsils, but many episodes are caused by viruses.

Acute respiratory viral infection (ARVI)

Acute respiratory viral infections are caused by different viruses and may affect the upper or lower respiratory tract. Similar symptoms cannot reliably identify the exact virus.

Fungal skin infections

Fungal skin infections can affect the body, feet, groin and skin folds. Dermatophytes are one group of fungi responsible, but eczema, dermatitis and psoriasis can look similar.

Epigastric (linea alba) hernia

An epigastric or linea alba hernia develops through a defect along the middle of the anterior abdominal wall, often above the navel. Its size and symptoms vary and require individual surgical assessment.

Dermatitis

Dermatitis is an umbrella term for inflammatory skin conditions with itching, dryness, irritation or rash. The cause and treatment vary.

Diverticular disease of the intestine

Diverticula are small pockets in the intestinal wall. Diverticulosis means these pockets are present; diverticulitis refers to inflammation. An incidental finding does not automatically require treatment or surgery.

Diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy affects the small blood vessels of the retina in people with diabetes. It may cause no early symptoms yet eventually lead to reduced vision, macular swelling or bleeding inside the eye.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate. It can affect urination, but urinary symptoms have other possible explanations and should not automatically be attributed to the prostate.

Epilepsy in adults

Epilepsy is associated with a tendency towards repeated unprovoked epileptic seizures; one event does not automatically establish the diagnosis.

Erectile dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction refers to recurring difficulty getting or maintaining an erection suitable for desired sexual activity. An isolated episode during stress or fatigue does not necessarily indicate an ongoing disorder.

Gallstone disease

Gallstones may be found by chance without causing symptoms, or they may trigger painful attacks. Management depends on symptoms and complications.

Diseases of the retina and macula

The retina detects light, while the macula supports detailed central vision. Different retinal and macular disorders can blur or distort vision, and some have few symptoms early on.

Urinary tract infections in children

A urinary tract infection (UTI) can affect the bladder or upper urinary tract. Some children have painful or frequent urination, while infants may only show fever or poor feeding. Prompt assessment matters because symptoms vary with age.

Sexually transmitted infections in women

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) may cause unusual discharge, pain or spotting, yet some have no noticeable symptoms and are found through testing.

Helicobacter pylori infection and eradication

Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium that can colonise the stomach lining. Infection may occur without symptoms or be associated with gastritis and peptic ulcer disease; symptoms alone cannot confirm it.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease involves an inadequate blood supply to the heart muscle. Chest pain has several possible causes and requires proper assessment.

Ischaemic colitis

Ischaemic colitis happens when the blood supply to part of the large intestine is reduced. It can cause sudden abdominal pain and rectal bleeding and may be serious even when earlier symptoms were mild.

Cardiomyopathies

Cardiomyopathies are disorders of the heart muscle with different causes and clinical features. Tests are needed to identify the type of condition.

Bowel obstruction

Bowel obstruction is a partial or complete failure of intestinal contents to move normally. It can threaten blood flow and fluid balance and must be assessed urgently in a hospital.

Kidney cysts in children

An ultrasound finding of a kidney cyst can worry parents, but a single cyst is not the same as polycystic kidney disease or an immediate sign of kidney failure. Interpretation depends on the number, characteristics and location of cysts and the wider health picture.

Kyphoscoliosis

Kyphoscoliosis combines an increased kyphotic curve with a sideways spinal curve. It is not the same as ordinary slouching; the type and degree of deformity require clinical assessment.

Hip osteoarthritis (coxarthrosis)

Coxarthrosis is osteoarthritis of the hip joint, which can cause pain, stiffness and reduced range of movement. Not every ache in the groin or thigh comes from arthritis, so a clinical diagnosis matters.

Conjunctivitis

Conjunctivitis is inflammation of the thin tissue covering the white of the eye and inner eyelid. Infection, allergy and irritation can look similar, so the cause cannot always be judged by redness alone.

Molluscum contagiosum in children

Molluscum contagiosum causes small rounded skin bumps in children. Many clear without treatment, but evaluation can confirm the diagnosis.

Urticaria (hives)

Urticaria, also called hives, causes raised itchy wheals that often change shape or location. Many episodes are not caused by a specific food, and the pattern of symptoms is essential when considering triggers.

Laryngitis

Laryngitis is inflammation involving the voice box (larynx). It often follows a viral respiratory illness or excessive voice use, but persistent hoarseness needs an assessment for other causes.

Drug allergy

An unwanted reaction after medication does not always mean drug allergy. It may be a predictable side effect, intolerance or an immune reaction; using an inaccurate allergy label can unnecessarily restrict treatment choices.

Medicine-related and post-infectious enterocolitis

Diarrhoea, bloating and abdominal discomfort can continue after gastroenteritis or begin while taking a medicine. These symptoms do not automatically prove an ongoing intestinal infection or inflammation.

Rhinitis medicamentosa (rebound congestion)

Rhinitis medicamentosa is rebound nasal congestion associated with excessive or prolonged use of certain topical decongestant sprays or drops. Temporary relief followed by worse obstruction may lead to repeated dosing.

Migraine in adults

Migraine is a neurological disorder characterised by repeated headache attacks and associated symptoms, not simply pain on one side of the head.

Herniated intervertebral disc

A herniated intervertebral disc occurs when some disc material moves beyond its usual boundary. It can irritate a nerve root, but similar findings are sometimes seen on MRI in people without significant symptoms.

Myopia (nearsightedness)

Myopia is a refractive error that makes distant objects look blurred. It often begins in childhood and may change as a child grows; an eye examination is more than a prescription check.

Neuralgia and neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain is associated with a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system; the way pain feels does not by itself prove a diagnosis.

Neurological follow-up after stroke

Follow-up after an acute stroke is a planned stage of recovery and prevention, distinct from emergency assessment of a new stroke.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Sensorineural hearing loss involves the inner ear or auditory nerve pathways. Understanding speech in noisy environments or over the phone may become difficult, even when the ear canal appears normal.

Large-bowel growths and tumours

A growth in the large bowel may be a benign polyp or a malignant tumour. The word “growth” does not itself establish cancer, and some lesions produce no symptoms for a long time.

Small-bowel growths and tumours

Growths in the small intestine can be benign or malignant and are less common than large-bowel lesions. Symptoms may be subtle and overlap with many other gastrointestinal conditions.

Obesity

Obesity is a complex chronic disease that calls for individualized, nonjudgmental care and evaluation of health risks.

Onychomycosis (fungal nail infection)

Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of a fingernail or, more often, a toenail. Nail thickening, crumbling or discolouration can develop slowly, sometimes without pain.

Orchiepididymitis

Orchiepididymitis involves inflammation of the testicle and epididymis. Swelling, tenderness and sometimes fever may occur, but sudden pain must not automatically be assumed to be infection.

Degenerative changes of the spine: understanding the report

The term spinal osteochondrosis is commonly used in imaging reports, but it does not establish the cause of every episode of back or neck pain.

Otitis (ear inflammation)

Otitis means inflammation of ear structures. An outer ear canal infection and middle ear infection have different causes and treatment, even though both may cause ear pain.

Paraproctitis (perianal abscess)

Paraproctitis refers to infection and pus formation in tissues around the rectum; a perianal abscess is one possible presentation. Increasing pain, swelling and fever require prompt clinical assessment rather than routine self-treatment.

Peripheral neuropathy and neuritis

Peripheral nerves carry sensory and motor signals, and disorders affecting them may cause pain, altered sensation or weakness.

Dark spots and melasma

Pigmented spots can follow inflammation or sun exposure or be related to melasma; not every dark spot has the same cause.

High cholesterol (dyslipidaemia)

High levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol are often discovered through a blood test, because they generally do not cause pain or visible symptoms. Their importance is their contribution to cardiovascular risk over time.

Pyelonephritis in children

Pyelonephritis is an infection affecting the upper urinary tract, including the kidney. Fever, flank pain or an unwell child may require prompt assessment; young infants can have non-specific signs such as feeding difficulty or lethargy.

Pneumonia

Pneumonia is inflammation of lung tissue, frequently associated with an infection. Neither cough nor fever by itself confirms or excludes this diagnosis.

Pneumonia in children

Pneumonia is an infection affecting lung tissue. Assessing breathing, severity and the need for hospital care is essential in children.

Polycystic kidney disease in children

Polycystic kidney disease is a group of inherited conditions associated with multiple kidney cysts. A child may have no symptoms for years, even when a parent has autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD).

Gallbladder polyps

A gallbladder polyp is often discovered during ultrasound performed for another reason. Many findings are not malignant, but their appearance and the patient’s risk factors determine what comes next.

Rectal polyps

Rectal polyps are growths of the rectal lining that frequently cause no noticeable symptoms. Many are benign, but certain types may have the potential to change over time, so their nature and management matter.

Prediabetes

Prediabetes involves abnormal glucose regulation below the diagnostic thresholds for diabetes, with an increased future risk.

Prostatitis

Prostatitis is a term used for several prostate-associated and pelvic pain conditions. Acute bacterial prostatitis differs substantially from chronic pelvic pain, which is not always caused by infection.

Intervertebral disc protrusion

A disc protrusion describes an intervertebral disc bulging beyond its usual contour. It is an imaging term, not proof of the cause of pain and not a reason to assume that a disc needs manual “realignment”.

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a long-term inflammatory skin condition with periods of worsening and improvement. It is not contagious through touch, shared objects or everyday contact.

Pterygium of the eye

A pterygium is usually a benign growth of conjunctival tissue that may extend onto the cornea. Exposure to ultraviolet light and irritation of the ocular surface are associated factors; in some cases the growth affects vision.

Radiculopathy in adults

Radiculopathy results from irritation or damage to a spinal nerve root and may affect pain, sensation and muscle function.

Recurrent urinary tract infections in children

Repeated episodes of urinary tract infection should be evaluated as a pattern rather than treated as the same illness every time. The clinician reviews whether earlier episodes were confirmed, how they responded to treatment and which factors may contribute.

Rosacea

Rosacea commonly causes recurring facial redness and skin sensitivity; eye symptoms may also require evaluation.

Seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp

Dandruff and scalp scaling have several causes; seborrheic dermatitis often follows a fluctuating course and may affect other facial areas.

Heart failure

Heart failure can cause breathlessness, fatigue and swelling. Clinical tests are needed to determine whether the symptoms are caused by the heart or another condition.

Kidney and urinary tract stones (urolithiasis)

Urinary stone disease develops when calculi form in the kidneys or elsewhere in the urinary tract. Some stones are found incidentally, while others obstruct urine flow and produce intense pain.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

Irritable bowel syndrome is a disorder of gut–brain interaction in which recurrent abdominal pain is associated with bowel movements or changes in stool. It is a genuine medical condition.

Labial adhesions in girls

Labial adhesions are partial or extensive joining of the inner edges of the labia minora in a young girl. They are common before puberty and often noticed incidentally; their appearance alone does not mean infection or a need for surgery.

Sinusitis (maxillary sinusitis)

Rhinosinusitis is inflammation affecting the nose and paranasal sinuses. Maxillary sinusitis involves the cheek sinuses; it is one form of sinusitis rather than a synonym for every sinus problem.

Earwax impaction

Earwax normally protects the ear canal. When it accumulates excessively, it can block the canal and cause muffled hearing, fullness, discomfort or sometimes tinnitus.

Scoliosis

Scoliosis is a three-dimensional spinal curvature involving a sideways curve and vertebral rotation. It affects children and adults, but slouching or uneven shoulders alone does not establish the diagnosis.

Rare and inherited respiratory diseases in children

Rare and inherited respiratory diseases may begin in childhood and often require care coordinated with a specialised team.

Femoral hernia

A femoral hernia occurs when tissue protrudes through a weak area near the upper thigh, typically below the groin crease. Even a small lump needs surgical assessment because of the risk of entrapment.

Foreign body in the throat

A foreign body may lodge in the throat or upper digestive tract or enter the airway. Sudden choking, sharp pain, drooling or difficulty swallowing require an immediate assessment of breathing safety.

Foreign body in the nose

Children sometimes place beads, food pieces or other small objects inside a nostril. Some cases are discovered only when one-sided blockage, discharge or an unpleasant smell appears.

Foreign body in the ear

Small beads, toy parts, insects and other objects can enter the external ear canal, particularly in children. The safest response depends on the object, symptoms and possible injury to the ear canal or eardrum.

Urethritis

Urethritis means inflammation of the urethra, the channel through which urine leaves the body. Burning, discharge or irritation can occur, and some infections cause only mild symptoms.

Pharyngitis

Pharyngitis is inflammation of the lining of the throat. An acute episode often accompanies a viral respiratory infection, while prolonged irritation may have several possible contributors.

Atrial fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation is a heart rhythm disorder that may cause an irregular pulse, palpitations, fatigue or breathlessness. It may also have no obvious symptoms; its importance includes an increased risk of stroke for some patients.

Functional dyspepsia

Functional dyspepsia involves recurrent upper-abdominal discomfort, early fullness or pain without an identified structural explanation after appropriate assessment. It is not synonymous with gastritis or an ulcer.

Functional gallbladder and biliary disorders

Functional gallbladder or biliary disorders may be considered when characteristic pain recurs without a demonstrated structural explanation. Pain after eating is not enough to establish a functional diagnosis.

Functional oesophageal disorders

Functional oesophageal disorders involve troublesome symptoms without an adequate explanation from a major structural abnormality. A functional label should be considered only after checking for relevant alternative causes.

Chalazion

A chalazion is a usually localised inflammatory eyelid lump related to blockage of a meibomian oil gland. It may be firm and painless, unlike some acute infections of the eyelid.

Food allergy

Food allergy is an immune-mediated reaction to a particular food. It is different from food intolerance, so both investigation and dietary restrictions should be based on a clear clinical history.

Food poisoning

Food poisoning commonly describes acute symptoms after eating contaminated food. The cause may involve microorganisms or the toxins they produce; symptoms do not necessarily begin immediately after a meal.

Crohn’s disease

Crohn’s disease is a chronic inflammatory condition affecting different parts of the digestive tract. Monitoring matters even when symptoms improve.

Parkinson’s disease in adults

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological condition affecting movement and potentially sleep, mood and other functions.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) causes persistent airflow limitation and often develops gradually. Long-term cough alone is not enough to confirm it.

Cholecystitis

Cholecystitis is inflammation of the gallbladder. It often occurs with gallstones but can also develop without them. Acute attacks can worsen and should not be managed as ordinary indigestion.

Chronic gastritis and gastroduodenitis

Gastritis and gastroduodenitis involve inflammation of the stomach or duodenal lining. Epigastric discomfort alone cannot establish either diagnosis.

Chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis affects the pancreatic structure and function over time. Similar symptoms can occur in other illnesses, so a specific evaluation is needed.

Chronic tonsillitis

Chronic or recurrent tonsillar problems may cause ongoing discomfort, unpleasant breath and material collecting in the tonsillar crypts. A tonsil stone alone is not proof of a dangerous infection.

Chronic hepatitis

Chronic hepatitis is long-standing liver inflammation. It may cause no noticeable symptoms for years and requires investigation of the specific cause.

Coeliac disease

Coeliac disease is an immune-mediated condition in which gluten damages the small intestinal lining in susceptible people. Changing your diet before tests can affect accuracy.

Liver cirrhosis

Cirrhosis changes the liver architecture through long-term scarring. It has several causes and may remain compensated before serious complications emerge.

Cystitis in children

Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder, often associated with infection. Children may experience a burning sensation when passing urine, urgent trips to the toilet or discomfort low in the abdomen. Symptoms alone cannot confirm the cause.

Cystitis in adults

Cystitis is inflammation of the urinary bladder. It often causes frequent urges, burning when urinating and lower abdominal discomfort. Bacteria are a common cause, but not every similar symptom is bacterial cystitis.

Type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes causes a profound insulin deficiency and requires ongoing treatment and education in self-management.

Type 2 diabetes

In type 2 diabetes, high glucose results from reduced insulin sensitivity and impaired insulin secretion.

Male infertility

Male infertility is assessed in the context of a couple’s reproductive health. Causes can involve sperm production, transport or function, hormonal factors, previous illnesses and other conditions.

Varicose veins of the legs

Varicose veins are enlarged, twisted superficial veins, most commonly in the legs. They may cause heaviness, pain, swelling and skin changes. A clinician assesses the diagnosis, sometimes using duplex ultrasound. Not everyone needs surgery.

Superficial thrombophlebitis

Superficial thrombophlebitis, also called superficial vein thrombosis, is inflammation and a blood clot in a vein close to the skin, often in the leg. A tender firm cord, redness or warmth may develop. The clot can sometimes extend towards deep veins, making medical assessment important.